Western Civilization Essay Example

Western Civilization Essay Structured society relies on people knowing how to survive, and also how to survive with others. According to Owen, (1997), there exist the general skeleton of the social order which is so well distinct, planned, and planned that there’s room for personal freedom and creativity within the organization. In structured society, people works while every individual knowing his duty, for example if the society is structured, socially politically and economically. There need to be law and order hence need for specialization, this reduces conflict in terms of role assignment. The specialization is known to be the major drive for civilization. When mixed with division of labor, specialization allows for maintenance of law and order. In such societies duties and responsibilities are stated, for example in political structure we have the roles of the president affirmed and written in the constitution therefore one has guidelines to abide with. The leader has to have subject to rule, itâ €™s not possible to have rulers if you have no people to rule, hence need for structured society whereby people are civilized and are able to live together in harmony. Law and order is very vital in such societies (Owen, 1997). Christiano (2004) observes that when we live within the law, we share in the common good which helps all, and provides for a better world to grow and live in. But In Aristotelian scholasticism, ethics which are the basis for law are understood to mean the science for good life (Barford, 1996). In the same context, man is regarded as rational animal and therefore able to act in accordance with the right reason and also able to act justly and courageous. As members of the society, we are supposed to come together and advance based on the laws of the society we live in.   Reilly (2000) thinks that liberty was necessary for revolution only when used like a guiding rule, he emphasized that independence of each person must be respected. However, according to him total freedom for all cannot exist as a basis of the society. For one person to have entirely autonomy over another person, the other person will have to give up their freedom to allow the former to survive. When people move from their tribal clique, races to join new people in the working places for example town, they are said to undergo civilization which is a slow process which started long time ago more than 5000 years ago (Jessop, 1998). Civilization brings positive competition where everyone will do his best to be on the top of other ladder, sparkle. Civilized People are able to live together irrespective of their social background; it has increased trust between individuals to an extent that people are able to collect each other whenever a neighbor go astray, therefore togetherness in the community. We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Natural law is viewed by many philosophers as the instrument used in the exploration of gods will. As Martin, (1999) explains, natural law is different from theology, in that it does not rely fully on supernatural law or revealed sources but on empirical evidence concerning human existence and nature. Natural law is a source of social norm in the society. It provides the basis for moral system in different religious group. According to Owen (1997), in whatever setting of the society and religion, all share the common frame work of natural law. Looking at the process of absorbing social norm, members of a society utilize socialization and education to distinguish between the good and the evil. Social norms are based on human nature and are important convections required to achieve social stability. The major objective of natural law is to make or sustain socially valued roles for people in their society, in case where an individual holds valued social roles, one is highly likely to re ceive in return those good things in life that are obtainable in that society hence the society always a way of paying those people who adhere to its norms. In additional all sorts valued things that other people are able to pass on are almost involuntarily accorded to a person who holds societal appreciated roles, at least within the resources and norms ones society. (Barford, 1996). Most human being societies have adopted certain societal norms which result either from ethics or from intrinsic ideas. But according to Young, (2003), consequences are that they partially result to human societies being unable to forbid impunity. Eventually, serious tensions picks in the society that may lead to society’s demolition. Men in general learn to differentiate between good and evil through learning and socialization. Through reason, a man is able to distinguish between what is unacceptable and what can be accepted in a particular society. Some norms are vital for social stability and in this sense such norms are based on human natural history, they are conventions that we need to have a stable society.   Therefore society norms and ethics have a major role in setting the society free from disorder (Barford, 1996). If law totally breaks down, then society is worse off than before (Owen, 1997). Socrates believed in this statement and totally refused to break the law. He wondered what kind of citizen he will be if he refused to accept the ruling of the jury. In addition Reilly (2000) in his book the social organization of today are dissimilar from the first civilizations in that primitive cultures depended on unity of people to live. However currently everyone depends on cash inform of monitory value and it has established the same as the common good. According to Kibuka (2000), the society without cash would work mainly because it goes against individual nature. No matter how genuine and accountable people are civilized, people always need a reward. He continue to express criticism that without the reward everything will have no value hence the world will still be far away from civilization. In his book Reilly (2000) argues that an operational, liberated and just society must rest on a basic pri nciple. Right liberty cannot be real for all, unless the civil liberties of all are valued by all, these right can be liberty and the pursuit of happiness. According to Karl Marx, order is highly important for the organization and for maintenance of all human societies and to bring about civilization. He said the higher rank of order a society achieves, the more superior the society tends to be unable to find order and indeed the more chaotic it become (young, 2003). Marx contradicts with Reilly (2000) who thought civilization goes hand in hand with law and order in the system. He points out that through the period of anarchy and revolution a society mainly lack order and therefore becomes chaotic. Both Marx and Reilly (2000) however converge on the same thoughts that societies have a lot of the attributes of the united system; through swapping matter and energy to their surroundings as they add to their order specialization tend to develop. The world is an island and therefore we all need each other to survive and we communication which is the key to the organization and development of all human societies; this involves use of words and symbols. It’s therefore very vital to have a pattern of value, order and norms so that law and order will be maintained in a society; this explains why in a structured society there is need for law and order. In addition order and pattern is the core of social union and function (Cohen Arato, 2001). Karl Marx quoted that though much energy is put in a society to maintain order, change is unavoidable hence he believed that every society can be destroyed if unity is not maintained by law and order (Young, 2003). At this juncture, Marx was in agreement with (Reilly 2000) who argued out that for there to be order in the society we need law to be followed for law and orders go hand in hand.   Reilly (2000) believed that rational societies were structured to attain goals flexibly and were able to meet the test of time therefore adjusting for better. In what I regard as the major achievement of the Greek and Roman Empires, the ancient Greek empire has contributed a lot to civilization of the west. Since inception the Greek philosophy, it has continued to shape the whole of western thought impacting on modern philosophy and modern science (Jessop, 1998). Although many philosophers believe that neither inquiry nor the reason began with the ancient Greeks, the Socratic methods together with his ideas of form are entirely from the Greek. Socrates who was the teacher for Plato was an Athenian philosopher who believed that a person should strive always to do well. He emphasized that one should always know you and he was known for disobeying the bad command (Barford, 1996). Aristotle and Plato work forms the major philosophies that have greatly influenced the western philosophy. The Greece’s were very good in art, history, art and science which many countries including western countries borrowed to shape their growth of civilizat ion. All these cultures begun with what is known as golden age of Greece: it’s the time of cultural prosperity peace and time of law and order in Greece. More so myths, Olympics, democracy rule of law all originated in Greece.   Greek’s had a very rich culture which influenced western civilization. The most notable was mainly their philosophy and its culture which dictates their rich norms and values (Hefner, 1998). Greek scientist made radical discoveries in several fields like in mathematics, physics, medicine, biology and astronomy. This forms part of the reason why Greek civilization is still regarded as mother of discoveries. On addition it was first in Greeks where commercial trading post and colonies were founded this led to the growth of trade which in turn led to adoption of septic alphabetical scrip. These scripts led to the development of the subject mathematic. The Greek had several enemies who wanted to conquer them. The conflicts with the Persians did not only make the Greek Empire become very strong but also allowed establishing a very strong form of government which favored specialization (Hefner, 1998). To an extent ancient Greece affected civilization of the west with politics, this is because the Greece was the first to establish the democratic systems.   Laws as it’s in many western countries laws were voted on and proposed directly by the assembly of all citizens therefore Greece offered a form of government which is used by the western countries including the US. A form of government which has the Executive branch, the judicial branch and the judicial branch began with the Greece and later borrowed by the west. Greece was the first to realize the important of sports and make sport their tradition hence the first Olympic was held there. Surprisingly, up to date the western countries still compete on the same sports which were held on the first Olympics (Martin, 1999).For ancient Roman, Engineering was a main issue influencing western civilization. Nowadays the Greek technologies are used to build bridges, harbors and roads were buildings in the west. Cohen and Arato (20 01) express no doubt that civilization of the west has been shaped and largely based on Greece’s powerful politics, philosophers, medics, sports and classical art. The society has played a big role in the invention of law, in order to advance the concept of the common good. The common good was crucial to normative vision of what can be regarded as good life during the time of the Greek moral philosophy that formed the basis of western thought. The common good entails grasping idea that a person as sacred and social. Common good is based on understanding that human rights and dignity together with well being and human potential are achieved in one’s moral ecology. On the other hand it is the social justice that orients the moral action to the common good. Every person in the society who is dedicated to the quality of life and to the well being of every body gives in to the common good of all since. Plato asserted that in a just society, citizen bestowed themselves to the common good, act morally and wisely, and practices the occupation they are best suited. Aristotle contrary to that recommended that a state should be governed by middle class, because he thought that they are likely to struggle for fairness of the common good. Moreover he stressed that an individual depends on the society in order to survive a truly human life, and even that the state is a natural creation that precedes a person (Owen, 1997). As per St. Augustine, he diverted the natural law of society from one based on reason to one based on divine rule. In his argument, St Augustine Hefner (1998) apprehends God and churches as the vital base of civic virtue, law and order of the social order. Therefore religion is very important in shaping human destiny, for church offers laws and ethics to be followed. Its society’s role to come out with guidelines for defining what is norm and what is right. It is al so the society role in general to mold its own people. It has a function of maintaining law and order hence protecting its people. Jessop, (1998) asserts that the main function of civil society is to compel human beings to respect one another’s rights. Civilization can be achieved only when the civil societies in the western countries protect its members to pursue diverse interest at the same time the political parties striving to guide the members towards party goals. Nevertheless, many philosophers predict that the western civilization is on the verge of collapsing. Cohen and Arato (2001) attribute the collapse to invasion of the west culture by other cultures. Although, the west citizens are slowly rejecting their community culture, they still hold some sense of commitment towards it. Western Civilization Essay Example Western Civilization Essay Sometimes, it is very easy to read books about the lives of the real people who were able to overcome the crux in their own lives. The harder their challenges and difficulties were, the more entertaining it will be for the readers. We tend to be impressed with people who were able to write an account of their between life and death experiences and how they almost die. However, we have the tendency to forget how hard it might be for them to write down their own story of bitterness and much worse if their tragic experience was simply the beginning of a worse condition. The two authors in the books that are going to be analyzed and compared in this paper had the courage to relate their own experiences and humiliation as a Jew during World War II for the world to witness and remember the brutality of the War.   They both endured the pain as they recall the torture they had been through and put them in writing.   They narrated how tranquil and promising their lives were before the World War in the abode with their families. However, the war had ripped them with everything that could have included themselves. They were traumatized by massive and brutal deaths of people, their loved ones included. The two authors were the protagonists of their books. It was based on their first hand experiences during the war. If we are going to analyze the two books, we would have an idea how brutal the Nazi’s were and how tragic the Holocaust was. The first book was a narration of the true experiences in the Holocaust in the perspective of a Transylvanian s on as he witnessed the brutal death of his family members and how it gained an impact in his faith and his life. On the other hand, the other book described the same event on the perspective of a Czech daughter who lost her family and lucky enough to be able to escape and return to her hometown in Prague. The only thing was her escape in that war did not spare her. It simply opened the door that led her to another war and another torture she had to bear (Kovaly). We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer If we are going to compare accounts of two authors, we first need to consider the background of each author. We have to identify the compelling forces in their lives that gave a blend in their works. The first book was titled â€Å"Night†, which was written by the author Elie Wiesel. He began his story by describing his town in Sighet, his family and himself in the year 1942 when he was only twelve years old. He had three sisters and his dad was a shopkeeper and a venerated Jewish leader. Their family was deeply religious; as a matter of fact, Elie was enthusiastic in learning the dogma of their religion. He wanted to learn more and he had a very deep faith in God (Wiesel). However, this changed when the Germans arrived and captured their land in 1944. Despite the early warning of a person who survived and witnessed the maltreatment that the Jews suffered in Poland, his townsmen did not heed. Rather, they simply made fun of him. It was year 1944 when they regret not to take proper consideration of the admonition given by the old man.   The Germans invaded their land and moved all the Jews out of Sighet to concentration camps in Auschwitz. The Germans were cordial at first but suddenly issued a decree that they should be impounded and transported into ghettos and concentration camps. They had no idea on what would happen next. It would have been a blessing if they would be killed immediately to spare them from torture and misery. However, it was an ardent intention of the Nazi’s to impose agonies to these religious people as imposed by the leader, Adolf Hitler. They were treated like animals as they were being transported to the concentration ca mps. When they reached the reception center, Elie was permanently separated with her mom and sister since they were directed to the gas chamber.   He was left only with his father. Inside the camp, they were forced to witness how the innocent babies where ruthlessly burned and thousands of people crying in despair. It was his first night in the camp but it made an indelible mark on Elie’s heart. It was the night that he doubted God’s reverence. That night, he thought that his God also died. It was the night that dissolved his optimism and enthusiasm for life. At a very young age, Elie witnessed the cruelty of life and that he is just a tiny speck of worthless being who had to fight hunger, oppression and injuries in order to survive. He was once a very religious student whose life at that time depended on the whims of the Nazi’s. His virtues changed. His idea of retaliation against anybody who would threaten to hurt his family changed and turned into his despa ir to live. His concern changed as he suffered blows and fought to live. His main concern that was previously focused on God deviated to anything that could fill his stomach. In the camp, they were identified not with their name but with their number to signify perhaps that their lives do not matter, they are just mere numbers. He did not look up at his father as a blessing because they are still alive but a curse, a burden that might cause him his life. The hard work and inhuman conditions made him deny God (Wiesel). Their transfer to another camp in Buna served another challenge to Elie. He had changed. His god had already died and hanged in the gallows. He was beaten and his pain no longer mattered. Days and nights do not have any difference nor death and life. It was this transfer that he realized his father’s worth because the latter was separated from him. They had to work hard in order to live. This was the last camp they had been before they started the most painful march. It was the march that separated Elie permanently from his father. It was the march that forced a son to leave his loving father. It was the march that deprived them of food and water and were even mocked by the guards A lot of prisoner killed even their own kin just for a morsel of bread. Out of the hundred prisoners who marched, only a dozen survived and reached Buchenwald where his father finally died of dysentery and sever beating from the officer and other prisoner. It was the climax of Elie’s senses. I t was weeks before the aids arrived and he could be finally branded as Holocaust Survivor. This was the end of the World War II and the end of this book.   However, this period was only the beginning of the other book (Wiesel). The other book, â€Å"Under the Cruel Star: A life in Prague 1941-1968†, the author narrated her life as a Jew in the Lodz camp. Her name was Heda Margolius Kovaly. Albeit they were in a different country and ghettos, their religious faith brought them into similar fate in the ghettos. Heda and her family were sent to Lodz ghetto. She was also separated from her family and needed to bear the abomination of the soldier’s in the camp. She was of the same age as Elie at that time, still an adolescent, supposedly innocent to the atrocities of the world. Like Elie, she witnessed massive deaths, injustices and forced labor. When the Russian troops approached, they were also forced to march. Unlike Elie, Kovaly was very fortunate to have a chance to escape and return to her homeland in Prague. However, much to Heda’s dismay, this was not the end of her torment; rather, it was just the advent. The citizens of Prague were scared and refused to provide help, simply because they are Jews. Even her relatives and non –Jew friends were apathetic towards her condition because they, too, were afraid to suffer the beatings from a Nazi. The war was coming to an end and she was already in Prague, her home town. Supposedly it should serve as a citadel for her to soothe at last the pains that she suffered during the war. Unfortunately, it was not (Kovaly). However, one good thing that happened to Heda after this war was a birth of hope that finally a gush of tranquil wind will finally blow over her. She was able to reunite and later marry her sweetheart Rudolph Margolius. Like Heda, he also survived the concentration camps and the war itself. He was a very virtuous man with a lot of ideas about his country and Prague in particular. He supported reform and believed that the principles of the Nazi were the exact opposite of Communism so he supported the principles of Communism and thought that it would be effective government systems that will help his countrymen develop after the ravages of the war. He was able to get a good job in the government as the Communist government rose into power. However, this actually marred the supposedly happy ending of the couple. This job actually took his life when he was accused of conniving with an enemy of the Communist government. It was the system that he supported that accused him of being a trait or. Everything would have been perfect if the Communist party had not risen into power and condemned her husband and separated him from her forever. Things were made worse because they had a son, Ivan Margolius, who was growing up at that time. Heda was forced to make a living to support her son. However, the incident deprived her and her son the right to live a normal life. Since her husband was an enemy of the Communist State, she was deprived of the privileges to get a decent job to raise her son nor was she allowed to be helped by others without suffering the consequences from the Communist government. No matter how her friends in Prague would have wanted to help her and her son, they were scared of the repercussions just like when the Nazi’s were still in their land.   They were forced to live life in poverty. They were treated like lepers that were needed to be isolated. Despite all this social persecution, she fell in love again and remarried Pavel Kovaly. However, i t seems that she was born with so much bad luck that whoever would lend a hand to help her would also suffer failure. Because of what happened, her new husband, who had a very promising career ended up having a bad reputation just because of his affiliation with Heda. In the book, Heda’s miseries and continuous struggle lasted for more than twenty years. When the social had gone worst, she was able to escape again and finally live peacefully in the United States. That was the end of her book and the end of the war in her life. This book was dedicated to her son who was clueless with the persecution of his father and the agony of her mother (Kovaly). These two books actually presented the two victims and survivors of war in different perspectives. They both believed in the same God and the same doctrine. It was the same religion that led them to concentration camps. They both had the ardent desire to overcome whatever challenges that would come their way. One magnified and illustrated the turmoil inside the concentration camp and the genocide of the Jews, while the other placidly illustrated her agonies during the war when she lost her family and yet survived just to face another war that took her beloved away from her. They were all torn by the war. They were all innocent victims of abusive government and capricious rulers. The titles of these two books were quite similar in a sense that they all compare their experiences with darkness. The first one was even titled â€Å"Night† (Wiesel), to describe that one long night of unbearable nightmare that altered his life forever; while the other one denotes the cruelty of the stars that deprived her of any light to guide for more than twenty years of her life in Czechoslovakia.   It was a saga of continuous struggle for better life but their struggle simply ended up into another saga filled with tears and bitterness. The courage of these two authors to share their tragic and humiliating experiences to reveal the truth about the grim of the war was so remarkable. It is not easy to share how tragic one’s life was, but these two authors made the difference in bringing the truth about what happened during those times. If there is one thing that their books reflected, that would be their determination to overcome whatever obstacle that would come their way. They did not resolve to self-pity. They struggled to move on even if they do not know what the future brings. They did not stop when they lost their loved ones. Instead, they continued and embraced life no matter how difficult it may seem. Their books reflected tragedies and misfortunes in one’s life are not enough reason to give up. No matter how heavy our burden in life could be, still, life must go on. Western Civilization Essay Example Western Civilization Essay Structured society relies on people knowing how to survive, and also how to survive with others. According to Owen, (1997), there exist the general skeleton of the social order which is so well distinct, planned, and planned that there’s room for personal freedom and creativity within the organization. In structured society, people works while every individual knowing his duty, for example if the society is structured, socially politically and economically. There need to be law and order hence need for specialization, this reduces conflict in terms of role assignment. The specialization is known to be the major drive for civilization. When mixed with division of labor, specialization allows for maintenance of law and order. In such societies duties and responsibilities are stated, for example in political structure we have the roles of the president affirmed and written in the constitution therefore one has guidelines to abide with. The leader has to have subject to rule, itâ €™s not possible to have rulers if you have no people to rule, hence need for structured society whereby people are civilized and are able to live together in harmony. Law and order is very vital in such societies (Owen, 1997). Christiano (2004) observes that when we live within the law, we share in the common good which helps all, and provides for a better world to grow and live in. But In Aristotelian scholasticism, ethics which are the basis for law are understood to mean the science for good life (Barford, 1996). In the same context, man is regarded as rational animal and therefore able to act in accordance with the right reason and also able to act justly and courageous. As members of the society, we are supposed to come together and advance based on the laws of the society we live in.   Reilly (2000) thinks that liberty was necessary for revolution only when used like a guiding rule, he emphasized that independence of each person must be respected. However, according to him total freedom for all cannot exist as a basis of the society. For one person to have entirely autonomy over another person, the other person will have to give up their freedom to allow the former to survive. When people move from their tribal clique, races to join new people in the working places for example town, they are said to undergo civilization which is a slow process which started long time ago more than 5000 years ago (Jessop, 1998). Civilization brings positive competition where everyone will do his best to be on the top of other ladder, sparkle. Civilized People are able to live together irrespective of their social background; it has increased trust between individuals to an extent that people are able to collect each other whenever a neighbor go astray, therefore togetherness in the community. We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Western Civilization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Natural law is viewed by many philosophers as the instrument used in the exploration of gods will. As Martin, (1999) explains, natural law is different from theology, in that it does not rely fully on supernatural law or revealed sources but on empirical evidence concerning human existence and nature. Natural law is a source of social norm in the society. It provides the basis for moral system in different religious group. According to Owen (1997), in whatever setting of the society and religion, all share the common frame work of natural law. Looking at the process of absorbing social norm, members of a society utilize socialization and education to distinguish between the good and the evil. Social norms are based on human nature and are important convections required to achieve social stability. The major objective of natural law is to make or sustain socially valued roles for people in their society, in case where an individual holds valued social roles, one is highly likely to re ceive in return those good things in life that are obtainable in that society hence the society always a way of paying those people who adhere to its norms. In additional all sorts valued things that other people are able to pass on are almost involuntarily accorded to a person who holds societal appreciated roles, at least within the resources and norms ones society. (Barford, 1996). Most human being societies have adopted certain societal norms which result either from ethics or from intrinsic ideas. But according to Young, (2003), consequences are that they partially result to human societies being unable to forbid impunity. Eventually, serious tensions picks in the society that may lead to society’s demolition. Men in general learn to differentiate between good and evil through learning and socialization. Through reason, a man is able to distinguish between what is unacceptable and what can be accepted in a particular society. Some norms are vital for social stability and in this sense such norms are based on human natural history, they are conventions that we need to have a stable society.   Therefore society norms and ethics have a major role in setting the society free from disorder (Barford, 1996). If law totally breaks down, then society is worse off than before (Owen, 1997). Socrates believed in this statement and totally refused to break the law. He wondered what kind of citizen he will be if he refused to accept the ruling of the jury. In addition Reilly (2000) in his book the social organization of today are dissimilar from the first civilizations in that primitive cultures depended on unity of people to live. However currently everyone depends on cash inform of monitory value and it has established the same as the common good. According to Kibuka (2000), the society without cash would work mainly because it goes against individual nature. No matter how genuine and accountable people are civilized, people always need a reward. He continue to express criticism that without the reward everything will have no value hence the world will still be far away from civilization. In his book Reilly (2000) argues that an operational, liberated and just society must rest on a basic pri nciple. Right liberty cannot be real for all, unless the civil liberties of all are valued by all, these right can be liberty and the pursuit of happiness. According to Karl Marx, order is highly important for the organization and for maintenance of all human societies and to bring about civilization. He said the higher rank of order a society achieves, the more superior the society tends to be unable to find order and indeed the more chaotic it become (young, 2003). Marx contradicts with Reilly (2000) who thought civilization goes hand in hand with law and order in the system. He points out that through the period of anarchy and revolution a society mainly lack order and therefore becomes chaotic. Both Marx and Reilly (2000) however converge on the same thoughts that societies have a lot of the attributes of the united system; through swapping matter and energy to their surroundings as they add to their order specialization tend to develop. The world is an island and therefore we all need each other to survive and we communication which is the key to the organization and development of all human societies; this involves use of words and symbols. It’s therefore very vital to have a pattern of value, order and norms so that law and order will be maintained in a society; this explains why in a structured society there is need for law and order. In addition order and pattern is the core of social union and function (Cohen Arato, 2001). Karl Marx quoted that though much energy is put in a society to maintain order, change is unavoidable hence he believed that every society can be destroyed if unity is not maintained by law and order (Young, 2003). At this juncture, Marx was in agreement with (Reilly 2000) who argued out that for there to be order in the society we need law to be followed for law and orders go hand in hand.   Reilly (2000) believed that rational societies were structured to attain goals flexibly and were able to meet the test of time therefore adjusting for better. In what I regard as the major achievement of the Greek and Roman Empires, the ancient Greek empire has contributed a lot to civilization of the west. Since inception the Greek philosophy, it has continued to shape the whole of western thought impacting on modern philosophy and modern science (Jessop, 1998). Although many philosophers believe that neither inquiry nor the reason began with the ancient Greeks, the Socratic methods together with his ideas of form are entirely from the Greek. Socrates who was the teacher for Plato was an Athenian philosopher who believed that a person should strive always to do well. He emphasized that one should always know you and he was known for disobeying the bad command (Barford, 1996). Aristotle and Plato work forms the major philosophies that have greatly influenced the western philosophy. The Greece’s were very good in art, history, art and science which many countries including western countries borrowed to shape their growth of civilizat ion. All these cultures begun with what is known as golden age of Greece: it’s the time of cultural prosperity peace and time of law and order in Greece. More so myths, Olympics, democracy rule of law all originated in Greece.   Greek’s had a very rich culture which influenced western civilization. The most notable was mainly their philosophy and its culture which dictates their rich norms and values (Hefner, 1998). Greek scientist made radical discoveries in several fields like in mathematics, physics, medicine, biology and astronomy. This forms part of the reason why Greek civilization is still regarded as mother of discoveries. On addition it was first in Greeks where commercial trading post and colonies were founded this led to the growth of trade which in turn led to adoption of septic alphabetical scrip. These scripts led to the development of the subject mathematic. The Greek had several enemies who wanted to conquer them. The conflicts with the Persians did not only make the Greek Empire become very strong but also allowed establishing a very strong form of government which favored specialization (Hefner, 1998). To an extent ancient Greece affected civilization of the west with politics, this is because the Greece was the first to establish the democratic systems.   Laws as it’s in many western countries laws were voted on and proposed directly by the assembly of all citizens therefore Greece offered a form of government which is used by the western countries including the US. A form of government which has the Executive branch, the judicial branch and the judicial branch began with the Greece and later borrowed by the west. Greece was the first to realize the important of sports and make sport their tradition hence the first Olympic was held there. Surprisingly, up to date the western countries still compete on the same sports which were held on the first Olympics (Martin, 1999).For ancient Roman, Engineering was a main issue influencing western civilization. Nowadays the Greek technologies are used to build bridges, harbors and roads were buildings in the west. Cohen and Arato (20 01) express no doubt that civilization of the west has been shaped and largely based on Greece’s powerful politics, philosophers, medics, sports and classical art. The society has played a big role in the invention of law, in order to advance the concept of the common good. The common good was crucial to normative vision of what can be regarded as good life during the time of the Greek moral philosophy that formed the basis of western thought. The common good entails grasping idea that a person as sacred and social. Common good is based on understanding that human rights and dignity together with well being and human potential are achieved in one’s moral ecology. On the other hand it is the social justice that orients the moral action to the common good. Every person in the society who is dedicated to the quality of life and to the well being of every body gives in to the common good of all since. Plato asserted that in a just society, citizen bestowed themselves to the common good, act morally and wisely, and practices the occupation they are best suited. Aristotle contrary to that recommended that a state should be governed by middle class, because he thought that they are likely to struggle for fairness of the common good. Moreover he stressed that an individual depends on the society in order to survive a truly human life, and even that the state is a natural creation that precedes a person (Owen, 1997). As per St. Augustine, he diverted the natural law of society from one based on reason to one based on divine rule. In his argument, St Augustine Hefner (1998) apprehends God and churches as the vital base of civic virtue, law and order of the social order. Therefore religion is very important in shaping human destiny, for church offers laws and ethics to be followed. Its society’s role to come out with guidelines for defining what is norm and what is right. It is al so the society role in general to mold its own people. It has a function of maintaining law and order hence protecting its people. Jessop, (1998) asserts that the main function of civil society is to compel human beings to respect one another’s rights. Civilization can be achieved only when the civil societies in the western countries protect its members to pursue diverse interest at the same time the political parties striving to guide the members towards party goals. Nevertheless, many philosophers predict that the western civilization is on the verge of collapsing. Cohen and Arato (2001) attribute the collapse to invasion of the west culture by other cultures. Although, the west citizens are slowly rejecting their community culture, they still hold some sense of commitment towards it.

Leedsichthys - Facts and Figures

Leedsichthys - Facts and Figures Name: Leedsichthys (Greek for Leeds fish); pronounced leeds-ICK-thissHabitat: Oceans worldwideHistorical Period: Middle-Late Jurassic (189-144 million years ago)Size and Weight: 30 to 70 feet long and five to 50 tonsDiet: PlanktonDistinguishing Characteristics: Large size; semi-cartilaginous skeleton; thousands of teeth About Leedsichthys The last (i.e., species) name of Leedsichthys is problematicus, which should give you some clue about the controversy occasioned by this gigantic prehistoric fish. The problem is that, although Leedsichthys is known from dozens of fossil remains from around the world, these specimens dont consistently add up to a convincing snapshot, leading to grossly divergent size estimates: more conservative paleontologists venture guesses of about 30 feet long and 5 to 10 tons, while others maintain that superannuated Leedsichthys adults could attain lengths of over 70 feet and weights of over 50 tons. Were on much firmer ground when it comes to Leedsichthys feeding habits. This Jurassic fish was equipped with a whopping 40,000 teeth, which it used not to prey on the larger fish and marine reptiles of its day, but to filter-feed plankton (much like a modern Blue Whale). By opening its mouth extra-wide, Leedsichthys could gulp in hundreds of gallons of water every second, more than enough to cover its outsized dietary needs. As with many prehistoric animals discovered in the 19th century, the fossils of Leedsichthys were an ongoing source of confusion (and competition). When the farmer Alfred Nicholson Leeds discovered the bones in a loam pit near Peterborough, England, in 1886, he forwarded them to a fellow fossil hunter, who misidentified them as the back plates of a stegosaur dinosaur. The next year, during a trip overseas, the eminent American paleontologist Othniel C. Marsh correctly diagnosed the remains as belonging to a giant prehistoric fish, at which point Leeds made a brief career of excavating additional fossils and selling them to natural history museums. One little-appreciated fact about Leedsichthys is that its the earliest identified filter-feeding marine animal, a category that also includes prehistoric whales, to attain giant sizes. Clearly, there was an explosion in plankton populations during the early Jurassic period, which fueled the evolution of fish like Leedsichthys, and just as clearly this giant filter-feeder went extinct when krill populations mysteriously plunged at the cusp of the ensuing Cretaceous period.

The History and Archaeology of Chauvet Cave

The History and Archaeology of Chauvet Cave Chauvet Cave (also known as  Chauvet-Pont dArc) is currently the oldest known rock art site in the world, apparently dating to the Aurignacian period in France, about 30,000-32,000 years ago. The cave is located in the Pont-dArc Valley of Ardà ¨che, France, at the entrance of the Ardà ¨che gorges between the Cevennes and Rhone valleys. It extends horizontally for nearly 500 meters (~1,650 feet) into the earth and consists of two main rooms separated by a narrow hallway. Paintings at Chauvet Cave Over 420 paintings have been documented in the cave, including numerous realistic animals (reindeer, horses, aurochs, rhinoceros, bison, lions, cave bears among others), human handprints, and abstract dot paintings. The paintings in the front hall are primarily red, created with the liberal applications of red ochre, while the ones in the back hall are mainly black designs, drawn with charcoal. The paintings at Chauvet are highly realistic, which is unusual for this period in Paleolithic rock art. In one famous panel (a little bit is shown above) an entire pride of lions is illustrated, and the feeling of movement and power of the animals is tangible even in photographs of the cave taken in poor light and at low resolution. Archaeological Investigation The preservation in the cave is remarkable. Archaeological material in Chauvet caves deposits include thousands of animal bones, including the bones of at least 190 cave bears (Ursus spelaeus). The remains of hearths, an ivory spearhead, and a human footprint have all been identified within the caves deposits. Chauvet Cave was discovered in 1994 by Jean-Marie Chauvet; the relatively recent discovery of this remarkably intact cave painting site has allowed researchers to closely control the excavations using modern methods. In addition, the researchers have worked to protect the site and its contents. Since 1996, the site has been under investigation by an international team led by Jean Clottes, combining geology, hydrology, paleontology, and conservation studies; and, since that time, it has been closed to the public, to preserve its fragile beauty. Dating Chauvet The dating of Chauvet cave is based on 46 AMS radiocarbon dates taken on tiny pieces of paint from the walls, conventional radiocarbon dates on human and animal bone, and Uranium/Thorium dates on speleotherms (stalagmites). The deep age of the paintings and their realism has led in some circles to a scholarly revision of the notion of paleolithic cave art styles: since radiocarbon dates are a more recent technology than the bulk of cave art studies, codified cave art styles are based on stylistic changes. Using this measure, Chauvets art is closer to Solutrean or Magdalenian in age, at least 10,000 years later than the dates suggest. Paul Pettitt has questioned the dates, arguing that the radiocarbon dates within the cave are earlier than the paintings themselves, which he believes are Gravettian in style and date to no earlier than about 27,000 years ago. Additional radiocarbon dating of the cave bear population continues to support the original date of the cave: the bone dates all fall between 37,000 and 29,000 years old. Further, samples from a nearby cave support the idea that cave bears may have been extinct in the region by 29,000 years ago. That would mean that the paintings, which include cave bears, must be at least 29,000 years old. One possible explanation for the stylistic sophistication of Chauvets paintings is that perhaps there was another entrance to the cave, that allowed later artists access to the cave walls. A study of the geomorphology of the cave vicinity published in 2012 (Sadier and colleagues 2012), argues that the cliff overhanging the cave collapsed repeatedly beginning 29,000 years ago, and sealed the only entrance at least 21,000 years ago. No other cave access point has ever been identified, and given the morphology of the cave, none is likely to be found. These findings do not resolve the Aurignacian/Gravettian debate, although even at 21,000 years of age, Chauvet cave remains the oldest known cave painting site. Werner Herzog and Chauvet Cave In late 2010, film director Werner Herzog presented a documentary film of Chauvet Cave, shot in three-dimensions, at the Toronto film festival. The film, Cave of the Forgotten Dreams, premiered in limited movie houses in the United States on April 29, 2011. Sources Abadà ­a OM, and Morales MRG. 2007.  Thinking about style in the post-stylistic era: reconstructing the stylistic context of Chauvet.  Oxford Journal of Archaeology  26(2):109-125. Bahn PG. 1995. New developments in Pleistocene art.  Evolutionary Anthropology  4(6):204-215. Bocherens H, Drucker DG, Billiou D,  Geneste  J-M, and van der Plicht J. 2006.  Bears and humans in Chauvet Cave (Vallon-Pont-dArc, Ardà ¨che, France): Insights from stable isotopes and radiocarbon dating of bone collagen.  Journal of Human Evolution  50(3):370-376. Bon C, Berthonaud V, Fosse P, Gà ©ly B, Maksud F, Vitalis R, Philippe M, van der Plicht J, and Elalouf J-M.  Low Regional Diversity Of Late Cave Bears Mitochondrial  Ã‚  Journal of Archaeological Science  In Press, Accepted Manuscript.Dna  At The Time Of Chauvet Aurignacian Paintings. Chauvet J-M, Deschamps EB, and Hillaire C. 1996. Chauvet Cave: The worlds oldest paintings, dating from around 31,000 BC.  Minerva  7(4):17-22. Clottes J, and Lewis-Williams D. 1996. Upper Palaeolithic cave art: French and South African collaboration.  Cambridge Archaeological Journal  6(1):137-163. Feruglio V. 2006  De la faune au bestiaire - La grotte Chauvet-Pont-dArc, aux origines de lart parià ©tal palà ©olithique.  Comptes Rendus Palevol  5(1-2):213-222. Genty D, Ghaleb B, Plagnes V, Causse C, Valladas H, Blamart D, Massault M, Geneste J-M, and Clottes J. 2004.  Datations U/Th (TIMS) et 14C (AMS) des stalagmites de la grotte Chauvet (Ardà ¨che, France) : intà ©rà ªt pour la chronologie des à ©và ©nements naturels et anthropiques de la grotte.  Comptes Rendus Palevol  3(8):629-642. Marshall M. 2011.  Bear DNA hints at age of Chauvet cave art.  The New Scientist  210(2809):10-10. Sadier  B, Delannoy JJ, Benedetti L, Bourlà ©s DL, Stà ©phane J,  Geneste  J-M, Lebatard A-E, and Arnold M. 2012. Further constraints on the Chauvet cave artwork elaboration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Early edition. Pettitt P. 2008.  Art and the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Europe: Comments on the archaeological arguments for an early Upper Paleolithic antiquity of the Grotte Chauvet art.  Journal of Human Evolution  55(5):908-917. Sadier  B, Delannoy JJ, Benedetti L, Bourlà ©s DL, Stà ©phane J,  Geneste  J-M, Lebatard A-E, and Arnold M. 2012.  Further constraints on the Chauvet cave artwork elaboration.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  Early edition.

A Synthesis of the Themes in Selected Poems about War Essay

A Synthesis of the Themes in Selected Poems about War - Essay Example These poems argue that wars are honorable because of the courage they involve, but they are still immoral because soldiers and their enemies are treated as mere pawns, dehumanized because of their mission to strike and kill without compunction, and stripped of their rights to autonomy, survival, and a good life with their families. To be a soldier is a noble calling because to live by its principles is an honorable thing. The basic principles of war, based on these poems, are courage, commitment, and selflessness. Lovelace may be referring to Lucasta as a woman whom the soldier loves, or all his loved ones in general. He explains to her the reasons of going to war, despite having the option of staying in the blissful arms of his beloved. The â€Å"Nunnery† means that the place of his beloved is pure and good, but it is not a man’s place (Lovelace 1.2). The â€Å"Arms† of war are more suited to a real man, where war is seen as a testing ground for manhood: â€Å" To War and Arms I flee† (Lovelace 1.4). The speaker agrees that war is another mistress; it takes so much time, attention, and resources: â€Å"True, a new Mistress now I chase† (Lovelace 2.1). ... The â€Å"stronger Faith† signifies that war is a holy quest. The decision to go to the war is an honorable responsibility. It means that honor in war is about protecting one’s country, something that can be done only out of the purest of intentions, the purest of love: â€Å"Yet this inconstancy is such/As you too shall adore† (Lovelace 3.1-2). Soon, Lucasta will realize what he means. He depicts that Lucasta is then fortunate, for in honoring the war, he honors her even more: â€Å"I could not love thee, Dear, so much,/Loved I not Honour more† (Lovelace 3.3-4). The greatest love comes from loving the society as a whole, not just one’s mistress or family, for in protecting their societies, they are protecting their families too. Another poem agrees that being a soldier is an honorable calling because of the courage, dedication, and selflessness it requires. Lord Alfred Tennyson, in â€Å"The Charge of the Light Brigade,† refers to an actual battle, where the English Light Brigade charged to a suicidal mission in the Crimean War. The tone of the poem honors the soldiers, but the feelings of exhaustion and resentment are present. In the first stanza, Tennyson says: â€Å"Half a league, half a league,/Half a league onward† (1.1-2). He repeats the phrase â€Å"half a league† three times in a row, suggesting tiredness. Soldiers get weary from their missions, but they must never falter, as if they are not supposed to feel tired at all. Tennyson does not mince words, when he introduces the fate of these soldiers: â€Å"All in the valley of Death/Rode the six hundred/ â€Å"Forward, the Light Brigade!/Charge for the guns!† he said (Tennyson 1.3-6). He knows that these soldiers are doomed because they will be charging for the guns. The soldiers

Reflective Cycle by Gibbs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Reflective Cycle by Gibbs - Essay Example Scott and Ely (2008) suggest that the purpose of reflection in nursing practice is to develop awareness of how and what can be learned from new experiences. One of the models of reflection will provide the framework for this essay. There are several models of reflection but the reflective model I have chosen is Gibbs Reflective Cycle (Gibbs 1988), with which I am familiar and I find it to be the most clear and concise than the other choices. The Gibbs Reflective Cycle (Gibbs 1988) will be applied throughout the essay to facilitate analytic thought and to assist in evaluating and relating theory to practice where possible. I have chosen to reflect on violence and aggression towards nurses in relation to patients with mental health and alcohol dependence issues. I will attempt to explore the elements that trigger violence and aggression. Besides, I will also dwell on the strategies that nurses may adopt in response to violence and aggression. This reflection will also include literature search and its detailed discussion. According to Jasper (2003), the Gibbs Reflective Cycle consists of the following stages: description, feelings, evaluat ion, analysis, conclusion and an action plan (Gibbs 1988). Therefore, I will begin with the first stage of Gibbs (1988) Reflective Cycle which necessitates a description of events. A pseudonym will be used to maintain anonymity and confidentiality as laid out by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (2010) in their standards of conduct for nursing students. The event occurred whilst I was undertaking a practice placement in the Accident and Emergency Department, where there was a high turnover of emergency patients. Miss March was a 42 years old patient, and suffering from depression and alcohol dependence and was prescribed medication for her depression. She was admitted to the department following an incident at home in which she had taken too many of her prescription drugs whilst under the influence of alcohol. I had not met or had any interaction with Miss March as I had been assigned to another area of the department for the morning. Miss March had already been stabilised in the resuscitation room and was just arriving in the area I was wo rking in. I noted that she was confused and she appeared to be drowsy. My mentor told me that Miss March, while being moved, had an episode of urinary incontinence and asked if I would wash and change the patient. My mentor also asked to me to deal with this without delay as during assessment there were small areas of red, chafed skin found around Miss March’s vaginal area. Therefore, her skin integrity was already compromised. Before going ahead, I took a few minutes to read Miss March’s nursing notes and found a history of verbal challenging behaviour but no indication of any physical violence. Having collected the necessary equipment I made my way to Miss March’s cubicle to assist her in washing and changing. Miss March was sitting on the edge of the bed and I explained the reason for my visit. I continued to talk to her as I positioned everything to assist her but she did not respond in any way. Just as I lifted the wet sheet from the top of the bed to put i t in the clear bag I had brought with me, Miss March yelled abuses at me then raised her arm to hit me. I attempted to reassure her

Claudius :: Ancient Rome Roman History

Claudius The emperor, Claudius, was a man with great integrity, individuality, common sense, patriotism and determination. From his struggles as a child to his death, was a remarkable journey. Many historians today and ancient Rome have placed him amongst the greats of all time. Despite his physical disabilities and background, Tiberius Claudius Nero contributed much to the greatness of the Roman Empire. Tiberius Claudius Nero is the youngest son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia (Daughter of Antony and Octavia), giving him royal blood. He was born on August 1st, 10BC, in the city of Comata, which is in the Region of Lugdunum (Modern Day Lyon, France). He was an unwanted child since birth. It is said that he had a sick and ugly appearance, with cerebral palsy. Yet, against the odds, he became an emperor, made many contributions to the benefit of the Roman society. According to many sources, Claudius was rejected from his own family due to his appearance; even his mother frequently mocked him. He would have been the normal choice to succeed Tiberius, had the monarchical family not thought him, unfit for the office. However, only Augustus thought Claudius as not stupid and granted Claudius a non-governmental priesthood position. Claudius was trained as a scholar, by the historian Livy and wrote several histories and literary works in Latin and Greek. (None of his work has survived, although there are inscriptions and fragments that provide some insight into his thinking). Claudius was considered a fool and kept out of public life until his insane nephew, Calligula, became emperor and appointed him as consul (alongside Calligula's horse) as a joke. After the assassination of Calligula, Claudius was found hiding in the palace, scared for his own life. The Praetorian Guards, interested in keeping their job as the Emperor's bodyguard, declared Claud ius as emperor and forced the Senate to do the same. The soldiers, courtiers, freedman and foreigners were his main followers. Nevertheless, they did not dream that Claudius would be known as one of the greats. Claudius' reign is marked with the expansion of the Roman Empire. He had great sympathy for the traditions of the old Roman Republic than previous rulers of the house of Caesar. But a futile revolt in the Senate, within a year after he became emperor, made him favour the army. In 43AD, he conquered Britain, where his troops accepted him as a god (Smith, Mahlon.

Humans

Humans like to be treated equally and fairly. Whats different about animals? Just like humans animals should be able to live their life not having to worry about being slaughtered every second of the day. The first argument for why people should not eat animals is for the reason that animals can feel pain, sorrow, happiness, and grief just like humans can. Yet we treat them differently because they don't have the capability of communicating. Humans are the most dominant and sophisticated creatures on earth and target animals because they are incapable of demanding their freedom and happiness. Dirk verbeuren once said â€Å"Every living creature has the right to live ethically† This statement is indisputable however only 31 percent of the worlds population truly believes that. Many people assume that animals have no feelings and emotions due to the fact that they cant speak in a language humans can understand. In 1995 masson j. Mccarthy wrote â€Å"When elephants weep: The emotional lives of animals†. This book talks about the emotions elephants feel and the way humans treat them. This book makes our population truly think about how we treat animals as a whole. The average american meat-eater is responsible for the abuse and death of 90 animals per year. Becoming a vegetarian will save the lives of many innocent animals. The second reason on why people should not eat animals is because of the effect it has on the environment. Livestock alone counts for more tham 14% of greenhouse gas emissions. A vegan of vegetarian diet could cut those emissions by 70%. Of all the agriculture land in the united states, 87% is used to raise animals for food. It takes 2,500 gallons of water to produce a pound of meat, but only 25 gallons to produce a pound of wheat. Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide together cause the vast majority of global warming. Producing a little more than 2 pounds of beef causes more greenhouse gas emissions than driving a small car for three hours. The environmental protection agency reports that approximately 80 percent of ammonia emissions in the U.S. Comes from animal waste. Consuming and producing meat predominately affects the quality and quantity of the earths water. Eating animals will eventually destroy the environment and hurt the population in a tremendous way. The last reason for not eating meat is for the benefit of peoples health. A vegetarian diet decreases the chance of cancer and diabetes in both men and women. According to an article in the journal of the national cancer institute, women who eat meat daily are more likely to develop breast cancer. Vegetarians have also shown to have lower blood pressure, better digestion, and more energy than humans with a meat based diet. Not eating meat will also reduce your risk of a food-born illness. The cdc reports that food-born illnesses account for over 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths in the united states. Finally, eating less or even no meat will reduce the risks of heart attacks and other heart related conditions. Not eating meat will improve the quality of life and further prevent sickness. There is no way to ethically eat animals. Every day there are millions of animals being tortured and killed just so the humans population can enjoy them. The environment, our health, and our morals are all reasons to become a vegetarian. Peta once said â€Å"The only time factory animals get to feel the warmth of the sun on their backs or breath in fresh air is when they are loaded onto trucks bound for slaughter.† These animals will never get to raise families or roll around in the grass and feel the sun beaming on their face. They are crammed in tiny cages until the day they are killed to be feed to someone to enjoy. The lives of animals are just as important as humans lives and becoming a vegetarian will help many innocent animals. If you don't like to feel pain and sorrow, why would they?